later censuses; (2)
certain changes were made in the treatment of "retired" persons.

[184] The "steam-navvy" is, however, making digging a machine
industry. Thirteen men with a machine-navvy can do the work of between
60 and 70 human navvies.

[185] The aggregate effect of the change upon employment of seamen is
traced by the following figures, in which the tonnage of sailing and
steam vessels is massed together:--

Tonnage. Men.
1850 3,564,833 151,430
1860 4,658,687 171,592
1870 5,690,789 195,962
1880 6,574,513 192,972
1890 7,945,071 213,374

[186] M.S. Levasseur, _La Population Francaise_. Paris, 1889.

[187] From 1876 the transport services, which in 1886 amounted to 2.8
per cent. of the income-receiving population, were included under
commercial. Taking this into consideration, a comparison of the
industrial and the commercial population of 1866 and 1886 shows that
while the former falls from 28.8 to 25.2, the latter rises from 4.0 to
8.7.

[188] J.S. Nicholson, _Effects of Machinery on Wages_, p. 33.

[189] Babbage, _Economy of Manufactures_, p. 230.

[190] Cf. Thorold Rogers, _Political Economy_ (1869), pp. 78, 79.

[191] Marshall, _Principles of Economics_, p. 607; cf. Cunningham,
_Uses and Abuses of Money_, p. 59. See, however, _infra_ Chap. ix.

[192] _Effects of Machinery on Wages_, p. 66.

[193] An increase in the space-area of a market may, however, in some
cases make a trade more steady, especially in the case of an article
of luxury subject to local fluctuations of fashion, etc. A narrow silk
market for England meant fluctuating employment and low skill. An open
market gave improved skill and stability, for though silk is still the
most unsteady of the textile industries, it is far less fluctuating
than was the case in the eighteenth century. (Cf. Porter, p. 225.)

[194] _Op. cit._, p. 117.

[195] _Board of Trade Journal_, November 1892.

[196] For twenty-six societies.

[197] Page xii.

CHAPTER IX.

MACHINERY AND THE QUALITY OF LABOUR.

Sec. 1. _Kinds of Labour which Machinery supersedes._
Sec. 2. _Influence of Machine-evolution upon intensity of physical
work._
Sec. 3. _Machinery and the length of the working day._
Sec. 4. _The Education of Working with Machinery._
Sec. 5. _The levelling tendency of Machinery--The subordination of
individual capacity in work._