it led to the slavery of many Christian converts, if they refused after
torture to recant. This was an alternative to death. Slaves were
tattooed with marks to show ownership. "Slaves were bought and sold like
cattle in early times, or presented as tribute by their owners,--a
practice constantly referred to in the ancient records." Their sex
unions were not recognized. "In the seventh century, however, private
slaves were declared state property, and great numbers were then
emancipated, including nearly all,--probably all, who were artisans, or
followed useful callings. Gradually a large class of freedmen came
into existence, but until modern times the great mass of the common
people appear to have remained in a condition analogous to
serfdom."[726]

+283. Slavery in higher civilization.+ It appears quite clear that men
in savagery and barbarism used each other, if they could, to serve their
interests, and slavery resulted. The hardships of life caused it. The
rules of war were "Woe to the vanquished!" and "To the victors the
spoils." Debt was a relation which might come about between two men from
incidents in the struggle for existence, or from loans of money and
goods. All mischance might be converted into lack of resources (money
and goods), and he who borrowed fell into dependence and servitude. All
violations of custom and law led to fines; all need of civil authority
made it necessary to pay fees. The debtor pledged his future working
time. His relation to his creditor was personal. That he was a borrower
proved that he had nothing which could form a property security. The
laws of Hammurabi provide that a debtor may give his wife and children
as pawn slaves, but only for three years. In the fourth year the
creditor was to set them free. The pawn persons were to be well
treated. A slave given in pawn might be sold, but not if it was a female
slave with children.[727] To aid or conceal a fugitive slave was a
capital offense.[728] Many Chaldean contracts have been found in which
the debtor bound himself to work for the creditor until he should pay
the debt.[729] It appears that the Babylonian slaves could form a
_peculium_ and carry on business with it as a capital, paying their
owners a tax upon it.[730]

+284. Slavery amongst Jews.+ The Jewish law had a provision like that in
the law of Hammurabi, except that the limit was six years instead of
three. A debtor was not to be a slave, but to give service until the