qualifications who
receive permission to practise from the "judicial institutions,"
i.e., the law courts. They are not members of the bar.]

It goes without saying that the Russian Minister of Justice made ample
use of the right conferred upon him of denying admission to Jews as
public and private attorneys. While readily sanctioning the admission of
Mohammedans and Karaites, the Minister almost invariably refused to
confirm the election of young Jewish barristers, however warmly they may
have been recommended by the judicial institutions and bar
associations. [1] In this way, many a talented Jewish jurist, who might
have filled a university chair with distinction or might have attained
brilliant success in the legal profession, was forced out of his path
and deprived of an opportunity to serve his country by his labors and
pursue a career for which he had fitted himself at the university.
Instead, these derailed professionals went to swell the hosts of those
who had been wronged and disinherited by the injustice of the law.

[Footnote 1: During the following five years, until 1895, not a single
Jew received the sanction of the Minister.]

4. DISCRIMINATION IN MILITARY SERVICE

It seemed as if the Government was intent on making a one-sided compact
with Russian Jewry: "We shall deprive you of all the elementary rights
due to you as men and citizens; we shall rob you of the right of
domicile and freedom of movement, and of the chance of making a
livelihood; we shall expose you to physical and spiritual starvation,
and shall cast you out of the community of citizens--yet you dare not
swerve an inch from the path of your civic obligations." A lurid
illustration of this unique exchange of services was provided by the
manner in which military duty was imposed upon the Jews. Russian
legislation had long since contrived to establish revolting restrictions
for the Jews also in this domain. Jews with physical defects which
rendered Christians unfit for military service, such as a lower stature
and narrower chest, were nevertheless taken into the army. In the case
of a shortage of recruits among the Jewish population even only sons,
the sole wage-earners of their families or of their widowed mothers,
were drafted, whereas the same category of conscripts among Christians
were unconditionally exempt. [1] Moreover, a Jew serving in the army
always remained a private and could never attain to an officer's rank.

[Footnote 1: