cal authority; besides, they were its
constant benefactors. But secularization was in harmony with the growth
of republican ideas. There was talk in California of the rights of man
and neophytes, and of the sins of friars. The missions were never
intended to be permanent. The missionaries were only the field workers
sent out to convert and civilize the Indians, who were to be turned over
then to the regular clergy, the monks pushing further onward into new
fields. This was the well-established policy of Spain. In 1813 the
Spanish Cortes ordered the secularization of all missions in America
that were ten years old, but this decree was not published in
California until 1821. After that secularization was the burning
question in Californian politics. In 1826 a beginning toward it was made
in partially emancipating the neophytes, but active and thorough
secularization of the missions did not begin until 1834; by 1835 it was
consummated at sixteen missions out of twenty-one, and by 1840 at all.
At some of the missions the monks acted later as temporary curates for
the civil authorities, until in 1845-1846 all the missions were sold by
the government. Unfortunately the manner of carrying it out discredited
a policy neither unjust nor bad in itself, increasing its importance in
the political struggles of the time. The friars were in no way
mistreated: Californians did not share Mexican resentments against
Spaniards, and the national laws directed against these were in the main
quietly ignored in the province. In 1831 the mission question led to a
rising against the reactionary clerical rule of Governor Manuel
Victoria. He was driven out of the province.

This was the first of the opera bouffe wars. The causes underlying them
were serious enough. In the first place, there was a growing
dissatisfaction with Mexican rule, which accomplished nothing tangible
for good in California,--although its plans were as excellent as could
be asked had there only been peace and means to realize them; however,
it made the mistake of sending convicts as soldiers. Californians were
enthusiastic republicans, but found the benefits of republicanism slow
in coming. The resentment of the Franciscans, the presence of these and
other reactionaries and of Spaniards, the attitude of foreign residents,
and the ambitions of leading Californian families united to foment and
propagate discontent. The feeling against Mexicans--those "de la otra
banda" as the