s before the first crusade, the eastern and western provinces of
the Roman empire had been acquired about the same time, and in the same
manner, by the Barbarians of Germany and Arabia. Time and treaties had
legitimated the conquest of the Christian Franks; but in the eyes of
their subjects and neighbors, the Mahometan princes were still tyrants
and usurpers, who, by the arms of war or rebellion, might be lawfully
driven from their unlawful possession. [21]

[Footnote 2012: "God," says the abbot Guibert, "invented the crusades as
a new way for the laity to atone for their sins and to merit salvation."
This extraordinary and characteristic passage must be given entire.
"Deus nostro tempore praelia sancta instituit, ut ordo equestris et
vulgus oberrans qui vetustae Paganitatis exemplo in mutuas versabatur
caedes, novum reperirent salutis promerendae genus, ut nec funditus
electa, ut fieri assolet, monastica conversatione, seu religiosa
qualibet professione saeculum relinquere congerentur; sed sub consueta
licentia et habitu ex suo ipsorum officio Dei aliquantenus gratiam
consequerentur." Guib. Abbas, p. 371. See Wilken, vol. i. p. 63.--M.]

[Footnote 21: The vith Discourse of Fleury on Ecclesiastical History
(p. 223-261) contains an accurate and rational view of the causes and
effects of the crusades.]

As the manners of the Christians were relaxed, their discipline of
penance [22] was enforced; and with the multiplication of sins, the
remedies were multiplied. In the primitive church, a voluntary and
open confession prepared the work of atonement. In the middle ages, the
bishops and priests interrogated the criminal; compelled him to account
for his thoughts, words, and actions; and prescribed the terms of
his reconciliation with God. But as this discretionary power might
alternately be abused by indulgence and tyranny, a rule of discipline
was framed, to inform and regulate the spiritual judges. This mode of
legislation was invented by the Greeks; their penitentials [23] were
translated, or imitated, in the Latin church; and, in the time of
Charlemagne, the clergy of every diocese were provided with a code,
which they prudently concealed from the knowledge of the vulgar. In this
dangerous estimate of crimes and punishments, each case was supposed,
each difference was remarked, by the experience or penetration of
the monks; some sins are enumerated which innocence could not have
suspected, and others which reason canno