yard hopper has been
suggested by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health Department,
and used in a number of places with complete satisfaction. The
improvement consists in the doors and walls of the privy apartment
being of double thickness, lined with builders' lining on the inside,
and the water service-pipes and cistern being protected by felt or
mineral wool packing.

[Illustration: FIG. 30.

J. SULLIVAN'S IMPROVED YARD HOPPER CLOSET.]

[Illustration: FIG. 31.

A MODERN WATER-CLOSET.

(J. L. Mott Iron Works.)]

=Yard and Area Drains.=--The draining of the surface of the yard or
other areas is done by tile or iron pipes connecting with the sewer or
house drain in the cellar. The "bell" or the "lip" traps are to be
condemned and should not be used for yard drains. The gully and trap
should be made of one piece; the trap should be of the siphon type and
should be deep enough in the ground to prevent the freezing of seal in
winter.

FOOTNOTES:

[18] Waterproof paint or tiling should be used for this
purpose.--EDITOR.

[19] Tiling, linoleum, concrete, etc., as opposed to wood or
carpets.--EDITOR.

CHAPTER IX

=Defects in Plumbing=

The materials used in house plumbing are many and various, the parts
are very numerous, the joints and connections are frequent, the
position and location of pipes, etc., are often inaccessible and
hidden, and the whole system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of
the house construction is subjected to so many strains and uses, as
well as abuses, as the plumbing of the house. Hence, in no part of
house construction can there be as much bad work and "scamping" done
as in the plumbing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many
defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as the plumbing.
At the same time, the plumbing of a house is of very great importance
and influence on the health of the tenants, for defective materials,
bad workmanship, and improper condition of the plumbing of a house may
endanger the lives of its inhabitants by causing various diseases.

=Defects in Plumbing.=--The defects usually found in plumbing are so
many that they cannot all be enumerated here. Among the principal and
most common defects, however, are the following:

_Materials._--Light-weight iron pipes; these crack easily and cannot
stand the strain of calking. Sand-holes made during casting; these
cannot always be detected, especially when the pipes are tar-c