eir object the preservation of the purity and
independence of the legislature. Among these are the following:

1. _Each house is the judge of the election, returns, and qualification of
its own members._ Each person elected to either house receives from the
canvassing board of the district through its clerk a certificate of
election, which he presents when he goes to take his seat. Should two
persons claim the same seat, the house to which admission is claimed
determines between the contestants. The contest may be based, among other
things, upon fraud in the election, a mistake in the returns, or alleged
lack of legal qualification on the part of the person holding the
certificate. Into any or all of these matters the house interested, _and
it only_, may probe, and upon the question of admission it may pass final
judgment.

2. _Each house makes its own rules of procedure._ These, usually called
rules of parliamentary practice, you can find in the legislative manual.
Upon their importance as related to civil liberty, consult Lieber's Civil
Liberty and Self-Government.

The power to preserve order applies not only to members but to spectators
also. Disorderly spectators may be removed by the sergeant-at-arms. On the
order of the presiding officer such persons may be placed in confinement
during the remainder of the daily session.

Unruly members are as a general thing simply called to order. For
persistent disorder they may be reprimanded or fined. [Footnote: See Among
the Lawmakers, pp. 230-3.] But in extreme cases they may be expelled. To
prevent a partizan majority from trumping up charges and expelling members
of the opposite party, it is a common constitutional provision that the
concurrence of two-thirds of all the members elected shall be necessary
for expulsion.

3. _Each house chooses its own officers_. Each house has a presiding
officer, several secretaries or clerks, a sergeant-at-arms, a postmaster,
and a chaplain. The sergeant-at-arms usually has a number of assistants
appointed by himself, and there are a number of pages appointed by the
presiding officer. These, however, hardly count as officers. The only
exception to the rule enunciated is in those states having a lieutenant
governor, who is _ex officio_ president of the senate. Even in that case,
the senate elects in case of a vacancy, the person so elected being chosen
from among their own number and receiving usually the title of president
_pro tem