d to railroads has existed almost
from their invention, probably on the analogy of highways; at all
events, it is too late to be constitutionally questioned now. The
exemption from taxation of private profitable enterprises, such as
mills or factories, is less defensible. Frequently, however, they go
without question, it being to no one's particular interest to do so.
The usual subjects of State bounties were, in 1890, beet-root sugar,
binding twine, iron and iron pipe, potato starch, and rope, with tax
exemptions to Portland-cement works. Ramie fibre continued a favorite
subject of bounty for some years, with seed distributions to farmers,
which were in some States held unconstitutional. In 1896 Utah gave a
bounty on canaigre leather and silk culture. There was an exemption
on salt plants in Michigan, but beet sugar continued the favorite
beneficiary. There has been a reaction against bounty legislation of
recent years. In 1908, for instance, New York repealed its bounty
on beet sugar, and it may be hoped, with greater intelligence
of constitutional principles, that all such legislation will be
abandoned.

Coming to matters of ordinary taxation, of course the first thing to
note is its extraordinary extent. In direct taxation it is not
an unfair estimate to say that the States and their municipal
organizations undertake to impose an annual assessment on real
and personal property which would average at least two per cent.
throughout the country; amounting to from one-third to one-half of the
income derived therefrom. In indirect taxation, duties, and revenue
taxes, a sum far greater is taken from the average household. One
might very much wish that the individual householder might at least
know how large a sum is thus taken from his earnings annually, for it
is safe to say that in no civilized country, not even in the France
before the Revolution, was individual taxation anything like so heavy.
Therefore, we are beginning to find legislation, even constitutional
provisions, carefully limiting the tax rate. The amount of the State
tax is thus limited in probably half the States, mostly Southern or
Western, and nearly all of them limit also the amount of taxation to
be imposed by the counties, cities, towns, school districts, or for
other special purposes. In the North-eastern States such limitation
is not usual, though in Massachusetts and New York it exists as to
certain cities. It may properly be said of such legisla