t of ground, the whole encircled by a deep moat that could be
filled with water when necessary. The great main entrance was flanked by
towers, and in connection with the heavy doors of solid oak was a
portcullis, that is to say, a grating of timber and iron bristling with
spikes, that could be drawn up from within, cutting off all access to
the inner precincts.

Some few Norman castles, all considerably modified to suit modern
requirements, are still in use as residences or public buildings,
including those of Windsor, Warwick (both specially typical), Norwich,
Dover, Richmond in Yorkshire, and the Tower of London; the keep of the
last named (known as the White Tower) and the chapel dedicated to S.
John being amongst the best examples of the Anglo-Norman style in
existence; whilst at Rochester, Colchester, Croft, Headingham, and
Kenilworth are extensive remains of other strongholds, that before they
fell into decay, must have equalled in grandeur those of Windsor and
Warwick. A very remarkable example of a private residence dating from
Norman times is Haddon Hall in Derbyshire, the seat of the Duke of
Rutland, which retains the original great hall with a dais and
minstrels' gallery, and a number of fine suites of rooms to which
various wings were added during the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries,
affording an excellent opportunity for the study of the development of
English domestic architecture.

CHAPTER VIII

GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE IN EUROPE

The first decades of the 12th century were marked throughout Europe, as
far as architecture was concerned, by the final breaking loose from the
Roman traditions that had so long been accepted as binding, and the
revolt against which had been inaugurated more than a hundred years
before. The struggle between the old and new methods of building very
clearly reflected that of the people for greater freedom of thought and
action in the countries in which it took place. The keynote of both was
an aspiration after nobler things, and, in architecture, a yearning for
religious expression, typified by the pointing upwards of the spires and
pinnacles of churches and cathedrals, coincided with the craving of
builders for increased lightness and grace of structure. The lofty
vaults and complicated systems of buttresses of the Gothic style bore
striking witness to the ambitious daring of their designers, a daring
more than justified by its results.

[Illustration: Gothic Vaulting]