s a constitution which embodied most of the
revolutionary principles which his Prime Minister had tried to suppress
for the last thirty-three years.

This time all Europe felt the shock. Hungary declared itself
independent, and commenced a war against the Habsburgs under the
leadership of Louis Kossuth. The unequal struggle lasted more than
a year. It was finally suppressed by the armies of Tsar Nicholas who
marched across the Carpathian mountains and made Hungary once more
safe for autocracy. The Habsburgs thereupon established extraordinary
court-martials and hanged the greater part of the Hungarian patriots
whom they had not been able to defeat in open battle.

As for Italy, the island of Sicily declared itself independent from
Naples and drove its Bourbon king away. In the Papal states the prime
minister, Rossi, was murdered and the Pope was forced to flee. He
returned the next year at the head of a French army which remained in
Rome to protect His Holiness against his subjects until the year 1870.
Then it was called back to defend France against the Prussians, and Rome
became the capital of Italy. In the north, Milan and Venice rose against
their Austrian masters. They were supported by king Albert of Sardinia,
but a strong Austrian army under old Radetzky marched into the valley
of the Po, defeated the Sardinians near Custozza and Novara and forced
Albert to abdicate in favour of his son, Victor Emanuel, who a few years
later was to be the first king of a united Italy.

In Germany the unrest of the year 1848 took the form of a great national
demonstration in favour of political unity and a representative form of
government. In Bavaria, the king who had wasted his time and money upon
an Irish lady who posed as a Spanish dancer--(she was called Lola Montez
and lies buried in New York's Potter's Field)--was driven away by the
enraged students of the university. In Prussia, the king was forced
to stand with uncovered head before the coffins of those who had been
killed during the street fighting and to promise a constitutional form
of government. And in March of the year 1849, a German parliament,
consisting of 550 delegates from all parts of the country came together
in Frankfort and proposed that king Frederick William of Prussia should
be the Emperor of a United Germany.

Then, however, the tide began to turn. Incompetent Ferdinand had
abdicated in favour of his nephew Francis Joseph. The well-drilled
Austrian