n the previous three kinds of non-existence, _pragabhava_
(negation before production), _dhvamsabhava_ (negation after destruction),
and _anyonyabhava_ (mutual negation of each other in each other), have
been described. The fourth one is _samanyabhava_ (general negation).]

294

A dravya may be caused by the inhering of the effect in it, for
because of its contact with another thing the effect is produced.
Karma (motion) is also a cause since it inheres in the cause. Contact
is also a cause since it inheres in the cause. A contact which
inheres in the cause of the cause and thereby helps the production
of the effect is also a cause. The special quality of the heat of
fire is also a cause.

Works according to the injunctions of the scriptures since they
have no visible effect are the cause of prosperity, and because the
Vedas direct them, they have validity.

Philosophy in the Nyaya sutras [Footnote ref 1].

The _Nyaya sutras_ begin with an enumeration of the sixteen
subjects, viz. means of right knowledge (_prama@na_), object of right
knowledge (_prameya_), doubt (_sa@ms'aya_), purpose (_prayojana_),
illustrative instances (_d@r@s@tanta_), accepted conclusions (_siddhanta_),
premisses (_avayava_), argumentation (_tarka_), ascertainment (_nir@naya_),
debates (_vada_), disputations (_jalpa_), destructive criticisms
(_vita@n@da_), fallacy (_hetvabhasa_), quibble (_chala_), refutations
(_jati_), points of opponent's defeat (_nigrahasthana_), and hold that
by a thorough knowledge of these the highest good (_nihs'reyasa_), is
attained. In the second sutra it is said that salvation (_apavarga_)
is attained by the successive disappearance of false knowledge
(_mithyajnana_), defects (_do@sa_), endeavours (_prav@rtti_, birth
(_janma_), and ultimately of sorrow. Then the means of proof are said
to be of four kinds, perception (_pratyak@sa_), inference (_anumana_),
analogy (_upamana_), and testimony (_s'abda_). Perception is defined
as uncontradicted determinate knowledge unassociated with names
proceeding out of sense contact with objects. Inference is of three
kinds, from cause to effect (_purvavat_), effect to cause (_s'e@savat_),
and inference from common characteristics (_samanyato d@r@s@ta_).
Upamana is the knowing of anything by similarity with any well-known
thing.

S'abda is defined as the testimony of reliable authority (apta)
[Footnote ref 2].

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