ior to all other
monarchs on the face of the earth; they would not acknowledge the
visitors as their equals, and regarded them as vassals.

"When the Chinese ruler learned of the conquests of those from the West
he tried to prevent their approach to his dominions. But trade had been
established; and the opium traffic had its birth, and the people were
crazy to procure and smoke it. This was the cause of the wars between
China and England and France, with the vassal question. In 1800 an edict
of the emperor prohibited the importation of opium into his dominions.

"England before this had entered upon the task of making a treaty to
settle the relations between the two countries; but no treaty was made,
and the smuggling of opium continued for many years. In 1816 another
embassy went to Pekin; but it was summarily and contemptuously dismissed
because the ambassador refused to go through the ceremony of repeatedly
prostrating himself before the emperor, and acknowledging his own
sovereign as a vassal of the emperor.

"The trade went on after India passed to the government of England.
China was still obstinate, insisted upon the vassalship of the Western
nation, and was confident in her power to repress the opium trade. The
merchants pressed vigorously for the enlargement of their trade with
China, which did not seem to be aware of its weakness before a European
power. A famous mandarin was appointed governor-general of the Kwang
provinces to bring the barbarians to their senses. He proceeded in
earnest, and England declared war against the country in 1840. The
result was evident from the first, and the war ended with the peace of
Nanking in 1842. The items were the ceding of Hong-Kong to the victor,
the opening of five ports to the trade and residence of the British.
Correspondence was established between the officials of the two nations;
but not a word was said about opium, and the smuggling went on as
before.

"In 1857, after some troubles in Canton in which the English were at
fault, and the refusal of the governor-general to meet an agent of the
British government, the latter declared war again, with France as an
ally. Canton was captured the same year; and Yeh, the governor, was
taken prisoner, and sent to Calcutta. There was little fighting in this
war; and Canton being in possession of the allies, a joint commission,
attended by representatives of the United States and Russia, proceeded
to Pekin to make their dem