f deducing arguments from the Quran. This too is divided into
four sections, as follows:--

(1.) _Ibarat_, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced,
shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be
obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is
reasonable." (Sura ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made.
First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, it
must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of
supporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that the
relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother.
Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind.

(2.) _Isharat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order
in which the words are placed.

(3.) _Dalalat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some
special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic
"uff") (Sura xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is argued that
children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on
"dalalat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but God
loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Sura v. 69.) The word translated
"aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'una, "they run." From this the argument
is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those
whom "God loveth not," and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be
given to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of
"dalalat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal
laws.

(4.) _Iqtiza._ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions:
"whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a
believer from slavery." (Sura iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free
his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed,
is that the slave should be his own property.

The Quran is divided into:--

(1). _Harf_ (plural _Huruf_), letters. The numbers given by different
authorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338,606
letters.

(2). _Kalima_ (plural _Kalimat_), words, stated by some to amount to
79,087; by others to 77,934.

(3). _Ayat_ (plural _Ayat_), verses. Ayat really means a sign, and was the
name given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Quran. The end of
a verse is determined by the position of a small c