pment, the other great branch of French co-operation, the
workshop movement of the _Associations_ _ouvrieres de production_, is
directly due to his teaching, which led in 1848 to the starting of a
large number of co-operative workshops. The suppression of association
after the advent of Napoleon III. killed most of them, but with the
return of liberty they revived and they have steadily increased ever
since. They vary somewhat among themselves, but are in the main
combinations of workmen to carry on their industries with their own
capital or that of their trade unions. Their chief difference from
English co-partnership societies is that they very rarely admit to
membership any persons not belonging to the trade. They are engaged in a
great variety of industries, selling comparatively little to
co-operative distributive societies, as English co-partnership societies
do, but taking contracts from government departments and the
municipalities, and supplying the general public. Complete statistics of
their total trade are not available, but it exceeds L2,000,000, and the
separate societies seem to vary, like the majority of English
co-partnership societies, from about L40,000 a year downwards, a few
being larger but the great majority small. From about 140 societies in
1896 they have grown to between two and three times that number, and the
increase continues with rapidity. More than two hundred of them are
federated in the _Chambre consultative des associations ouvieres de
production_, which looks after certain business interests of the
societies, and also assists the formation of new ones by propaganda and
advice. In Paris alone about a third of these societies are found.

It has been objected that their growth is artificial inasmuch as the
government gives them certain advantages, such as preference over the
private contractor at an equal price, exemption from the deposit of
security, and special concessions as to payments on account. It also
grants a subvention (recently about L7000 per annum), which was formerly
all given to the societies in grants, but is now largely lent to them at
not more than 2% interest through their own special bank. This bank was
founded in 1893 to help the societies with loans and discounts, and was
soon after endowed by a disciple of Fourier with L20,000. The societies
have also benefited by other private beneficence and public help. As to
the Government aid, it must be remembered that in Fran