rkish rule was oppressive and at times its methods
were barbarous. If there had been no jealousies among the great European
powers, it is probable that Russia would have occupied Constantinople
long ago. The other powers, fearing this might make Russia too strong,
interfered on several occasions to prevent such an occupation. But the
powers could not prevent the smaller nationalities from attaining their
independence from Turkey. Greece, Serbia, Roumania, Bulgaria, and
Albania were freed from the rule of the "unspeakable Turk" and erected
into independent kingdoms at various times between 1829 and 1913. Of her
great empire in Europe, Turkey retained, at the outbreak of the Great
War, an area of less than 11,000 square miles (less than the area of the
state of Maryland), and a population of 1,890,000, which was almost
altogether resident in the two cities of Constantinople and Adrianople.

RUSSIA.--In 1914 Russia was an empire occupying one seventh of the
land area of the world and inhabited by about 180,000,000 people. During
the nineteenth century the country was ruled by absolute monarchs called
czars, under whom political and social conditions were corrupt and
oppressive. However, some progress was made during the century. Serfdom
or slavery was abolished from 1861 to 1866; restraints upon newspapers,
publishers, and schools were partly withdrawn. Natural resources were
developed, factories established, and railroads built. But these
measures only served to whet the appetite of the people for more liberal
government. The activities of revolutionists and reformers were met by
most severe measures on the part of the government. Thousands were
transported to Siberia and many were executed. Even as late as 1903
five thousand persons were imprisoned, exiled, or executed for political
activity against the Czar's government. An attempt of the people to
force a representative government upon the Czar failed after a seeming
success in 1905-1906; for the Duma, or legislative assembly, then
created was given little power.

Russia has not been fortunate in her relations with the neighboring
states. Her great ambition, the occupation of Constantinople, was
repeatedly balked by other countries. In an attempt to obtain an
ice-free harbor on the Pacific, Russia brought on the Russo-Japanese War
of 1904-1905, in which she was disastrously defeated. In another
direction Russia was more successful. She posed as the protector of the
Sl