many features characteristic of the _zadruga_, the extended
family that formed the basis of social organization of the South Slavs,
including the Bulgarians, until its gradual decline in the late
nineteenth century. A _zadruga_ consisted of the male offspring of the
same parents and perhaps grandparents, with their wives and children,
living together and jointly owning and working the ancestral lands. The
group was ruled by the elected head, usually the oldest and most capable
male, who was responsible for directing the work, for settling disputes,
and generally for providing for the well-being of the _zadruga_ as a
whole and for each of its members.

By law and by custom, even after the passing of the _zadruga_ as a
social institution, authority over all matters concerning the family
rested with the father. In the village married sons with their wives and
children and unmarried children all tended to live under the father's
roof until his death, at which time the oldest son took over the family
homestead, and the others built their own houses nearby. The authority
of the patriarch rested, in no small measure, on his ownership and
control of the means of livelihood of the family. Sons submitted to
their father's will in order to inherit their fair shares of the
patrimony.

Close family relations were maintained not only with blood relatives but
with relatives by marriage and with godparents. The bond between two
families also related by marriage was as close, formally, as the bond
with blood relatives; it included not only the parents of the married
couple but also the brothers and sisters. For that reason parents took
great interest in their children's choice of mates. Similarly, the bond
between godparents and the family of the godchild was considered as
close as that of blood kin. The strong relationship between the two
families was developed partly because the same family usually provided
the godparents for another family for generations. Reciprocity of
godparenthood, however, was not allowed because a family tie was
established with the first christening. Members of families who were
related through godparenthood or through marriage could not marry
because that would have been tantamount to incest.

Age and sex determined the individual's role within the family and his
relations with other members. Men occupied a superior position, and
women were expected to show deference to their husbands and to older
male rel