ated Ecclesiastical Council, held in 1551,
put such matters as the position of the fingers when making the sign of
the cross on the same level as heresies--formally anathematising those
who acted in such trifles contrary to its decisions.

This conservative spirit in religious concerns had a considerable
influence on social life. As there was no clear line of demarcation
between religious observances and simple traditional customs, the most
ordinary act might receive a religious significance, and the slightest
departure from a traditional custom might be looked upon as a deadly
sin. A Russian of the olden time would have resisted the attempt to
deprive him of his beard as strenuously as a Calvinist of the present
day would resist the attempt to make him abjure the doctrine of
Predestination--and both for the same reason. As the doctrine of
Predestination is for the Calvinist, so the wearing of a beard was for
the old Russian--an essential of salvation. "Where," asked one of the
Patriarchs of Moscow, "will those who shave their chins stand at
the Last Day?--among the righteous adorned with beards, or among the
beardless heretics?" The question required no answer.

In the seventeenth century this superstitious, conservative spirit
reached its climax. The civil wars and foreign invasions, accompanied by
pillage, famine, and plagues with which that century opened, produced
a wide-spread conviction that the end of all things was at hand. The
mysterious number of the Beast was found to indicate the year 1666, and
timid souls began to discover signs of that falling away from the Faith
which is spoken of in the Apocalypse. The majority of the people did not
perhaps share this notion, but they believed that the sufferings with
which they had been visited were a Divine punishment for having forsaken
the ancient customs. And it could not be denied that considerable
changes had taken place. Orthodox Russia was now tainted with the
presence of heretics. Foreigners who shaved their chins and smoked the
accursed weed had been allowed to settle in Moscow, and the Tsars not
only held converse with them, but had even adopted some of their "pagan"
practises. Besides this, the Government had introduced innovations and
reforms, many of which were displeasing to the people. In short, the
country was polluted with "heresy"--a subtle, evil influence lurking
in everything foreign, and very dangerous to the spiritual and temporal
welfare of the