sformed into the
embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's
_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat,
"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab
and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man"
(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel
(_Schoepfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of
Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of
monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous
gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once
for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to
disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology
the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight,
sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and
Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the
father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her
adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the
death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts,
Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the
celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the
clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as
Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the
destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times
Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth
with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him"
(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p.
25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali
(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The
opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism.
Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all
evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's
_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164).

The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr.
[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the
post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of
the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots
in much older beliefs. A