by Yupanqui, Inca of Peru,
grandfather of Atahualpa, ruler of Peru at the time of its conquest by
Pizarro. The dominion of the Incas in Chile was probably bounded by the
Rapel river (lat. 34 deg. 10' S.), and, though their control of the country
was slight, the Peruvian influence led to the introduction of a higher
civilization, and, by weakening the power of the tribes, paved the way
for the invasion of the Spaniards. Beyond the limits of the Inca
conquest the Indians of Chile were distinguished by fierce independence
of character and by their warlike qualities. Rude and ignorant as they
were, they possessed a rough military organization; each community was
led by its _ulmen_ (chief), and in war the tribes fought together under
an elected leader (_toqui_). The name of the Araucanians, the most
powerful of the tribes, came to be applied to the whole confederation of
Indians living south of the Bio-bio river.

Spanish invasions.

The first Spanish invasion of Chile took place in 1535, when Diego de
Almagro, the companion and rival of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru,
marched into Chile in search of gold. Disappointed in his quest, and
meeting with obstinate resistance from the southern tribes, he returned
to Peru with his whole force in 1538. In 1540 Pizarro sent Pedro de
Valdivia to make a regular conquest and settlement of Chile. Valdivia
founded Santiago, the present capital of Chile, in February 1541, and
proceeded to build the towns of La Serena, Conception, Villarica,
Imperial, Valdivia and Angol, in order to secure his hold on the
country. But the Indians fought desperately for their independence, and
in 1553 a general rising of the tribes ended in the defeat and death of
Valdivia and in the destruction of most of his settlements. This was the
beginning of nearly a century of continuous warfare. As there was no
gold in the country the number of settlers was small, the loose tribal
organization of the natives made it impossible to inflict a vital defeat
on them, and the mountainous and thickly wooded country lent itself
admirably to a warfare of surprises and ambuscades. General after
general and army after army were despatched from Spain and Peru; Chile
was given a government independent of the viceroy of Lima; attack after
attack was made on the Indians, their lands were laid waste, and the
struggle was conducted with merciless ferocity: all in vain. Settlements
and forts were never free from assault and were