rious embargo act forbidding all foreign commerce whatsoever.
American ships must avoid foreign waters, which, like the land, had
become the arena of a bloody duel in which the United States were not
interested--so, at least, the Democrats fondly believed. Exports to
England fell in a single year from forty-nine to nine millions of
dollars. In other words, the embargo, though causing great distress,
could not be perfectly enforced, since the Eastern merchants continued
their humiliating submission to England for the sake of their
lucrative speculations.

At the same time the farmers were suddenly awakened to the fact that
in the end they suffered as much under the prohibition as the traders.
In the resulting agitations Jefferson closed his public career without
eclat. Madison wisely secured a modification of the embargo by the
Non-intervention Act, which opened all foreign commerce except that
with England and France. But the merchants of New England were
rebellious and dissatisfied even with this. The Federalists wanted a
navy and a place in the European system; in other words, a fair share
in the world's carrying-trade for the seafarers of the Atlantic coast.
Matters drifted on in general discontent and mutual recrimination
until 1810. Napoleon in that year shrewdly announced that he had
abandoned his policy, but for all that he actually continued to
enforce it. This empty pretense of friendship embroiled the United
States still further with England, and in the end led to a second war
for independence.

The Czar had no sooner taken the decisive step of finally declaring
war on England than the Napoleonic policy began further to unfold.
Prussia was at once compelled to follow her protector's example, and
before the ensuing season all her harbors were fortified and closed.
In spite of the French occupation, a national reform movement had
begun in this land. In Koenigsberg was formed the League of Virtue,
which focused the new morality and patriotism of the masses. The pens
of Fichte, Schleiermacher, and other great writers continued to build
up public spirit. Stein accepted office, stipulating that the privy
council should be abolished, and then freed the serfs. Among other
important reforms he destroyed the old distinction between land
tenures, and made transfers simple. Self-government was granted to the
cities. The schools were entirely reconstructed under the direction of
William von Humboldt, and the University o