merchants, and manufacturers, as well as to the
capitalists pure and simple. But even for them the keenness of
competition and the exigencies of providing for the varying
conditions of distant markets made the struggle for success a harder
one, and many failed in it.

In many ways therefore it might seem that the great material advances
which had been made, the removal of artificial restrictions, the
increase of liberty of action, the extension of the field of
competition, the more enlightened opinions on economic and social
relations, had failed to increase human happiness appreciably; indeed,
for a time had made the condition of the mass of the people worse
instead of better.

It will not, therefore, be unexpected if some other lines of economic
and social development, especially those which have become more and
more prominent during the later progress of the nineteenth century,
prove to be quite different in direction from those that have been
studied in this chapter.

*65. BIBLIOGRAPHY*

Toynbee, Arnold: _The Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century
in England_.

Lecky, W. E. H.: _History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, Vol.
VI, Chap. 23.

Baines, E.: _History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain_.

Cooke-Taylor, R. W.: _The Modern Factory System_.

Levi, L.: _History of British Commerce and of the Economic Progress of
the British Nation_.

Prothero, R. E.: _The Pioneers and Progress of English Farming_.

Rogers, J. E. T.: _Industrial and Commercial History_.

Smith, Adam: _An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of
Nations_.

CHAPTER IX

THE EXTENSION OF GOVERNMENT CONTROL

Factory Laws, The Modification Of Land Ownership, Sanitary
Regulations, And New Public Services

*66. National Affairs from 1830 to 1900.*--The English government in the
year 1830 might be described as a complete aristocracy. The king had
practically no powers apart from his ministers, and they were merely
the representatives of the majority in Parliament. Parliament
consisted of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The first of
these Houses was made up for the most part of an hereditary
aristocracy. The bishops and newly created peers, the only element
which did not come in by inheritance, were appointed by the king and
usually from the families of those who already possessed inherited
titles. The House of Commons had originally been made up of two
members from each county,