ges, and finally of royalty itself. In following
out these ideas, so different from those generally accepted in Europe,
France was brought into conflict with all the other European states,
including Great Britain. War broke out in 1793. Fighting took place on
sea and land and in various parts of the world. France in her new
enthusiasm developed a strength, vigor, and capacity which enabled her
to make head against the alliances of almost all the other countries
of Europe, and even to gain victories and increase her territory at
their expense. No peace seemed practicable. In her successive internal
changes of government one of the generals of the army, Napoleon
Bonaparte, obtained a more and more influential position, until in
1804 he took the title of Emperor. The wars of the French Revolution
therefore were merged in the wars of Napoleon. Alliance after alliance
was made against Napoleon, England commonly taking the initiative in
the formation of them and paying large monthly subsidies to some of
the continental governments to enable them to support their armies.
The English navy won several brilliant victories, especially under
Nelson, although her land forces played a comparatively small part
until the battle of Waterloo in 1815.

The naval supremacy thus obtained made the war a matter of pecuniary
profit to the English nation, notwithstanding its enormous expense;
for it gave to her vessels almost a complete monopoly of the commerce
and the carrying trade of the world, and to her manufactures extended
markets which would otherwise have been closed to her or shared with
other nations. The cutting off of continental and other sources of
supply of grain and the opening of new markets greatly increased the
demand for English grain and enhanced the price paid for it. This
caused higher rents and further enclosure of open land. Thus the war
which had been entered upon reluctantly and with much opposition in
1793, became popular, partly because of the feeling of the English
people that it had become a life and death struggle with France, but
largely also because English industries were flourishing under it. The
wars came to an end with the downfall of Napoleon in 1815, and an
unwonted period of peace for England set in and lasted for almost
forty years.

The French Revolution produced another effect in England. It awakened
a certain amount of admiration for its principles of complete liberty
and equality and a desire to