eventh
century is linked with, and not easily separated from, that of the other
Illyrian tribes. The written language did not develop until the
fifteenth century, and then for more than four centuries under Turkish
rule it was forbidden. Although Albanians distinguished themselves as
soldiers under Turkish suzerainty and some held high office in the
Ottoman ruling hierarchy, they were little known as a people before the
nineteenth century. As members of clans or feudal estates they lived an
outmoded life style and were relatively untouched by the forces of
industrialization and democratization that changed much of western and
southern Europe in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (see ch.
2, Historical Setting).

For centuries after the death in 1468 of Skanderbeg, the Albanian
national hero and symbol of resistance to Turkish rule, many Albanian
mountain communities lived unto themselves. Local control rested with
_pashas_ and _beys_, and some became virtually independent of Turkish
rule. About two-thirds of the people accepted, or were forcibly
converted to, the Muslim faith under the Turks. Since eligibility to
participate in political life rested on religious affiliation, some
Albanians thus became a part of the ruling hierarchy of the Ottoman
Empire, but the masses were indifferent politically. Activities or
attitudes that would tend to strengthen nationalism were suppressed.
When considered in its entirety the heritage from Ottoman rule
contributed almost nothing toward the development of capabilities
required for a viable government and a modernized society (see ch. 2,
Historical Setting).

Kinship, customs, and attitudes related to family life, and strong
attachments to community and language were strong influences in the
preservation of ethnic identity through the many centuries of foreign
domination. The Albanians are divided into two major subgroups--the
Gegs, who occupy the area north of the Shkumbin River, and the Tosks,
who inhabit the territory to the south. Differences in physical
appearance persist, but the breakup of clans and moves toward
collectivization of society after World War II diminished the most
distinguishing feature, their social system. Antiquated customs and
blood feuds that were frequently initiated by offenses against women
were more prevalent among the Gegs than the Tosks before the Communist
takeover (see ch. 4, The People).

The family continued to be a strong social for