asy the
interchange of commodities. Saint Louis himself organized industry, and
divided the trades into brotherhoods, put under the protection of the
saints from the tyranny of the barons and of the feudal system which had
weighted all industry.

Reform began in the year 1257, in the "Institutions" of Saint Louis,--a
set of clear and definite rules for the development of public wealth and
the general good of the people. In their first joy at this escape from
long-continued oppression, many of the towns of the Middle Ages had
admitted women to citizenship on an equal footing with men. In 1160
Louis le Jeune, of France, granted to Theci, wife of Yves, and to her
heirs, the grand-mastership of the five trades of cobblers, belt-makers,
sweaters, leather-dressers, and purse-makers. In Frankfort and the
Silesian towns there were female furriers; along the middle Rhine many
female bakers were at work. Cologne and Strasburg had female saddlers
and embroiderers of coats-of-arms. Frankfort had female tailors,
Nuremburg female tanners, and in Cologne were several skilled female
goldsmiths.

Twelve hundred years of struggle toward some sort of justice seemed
likely at this point to be lost, for with the opening of the thirteenth
century each and all of the guilds proceeded to expel every woman in the
trades. It is a curious fact in the story of all societies approaching
dissolution, that its defenders adopt the very means best adapted to
hasten this end. Each corporation dreaded an increase of numbers, and
restricted marriages, and reduced the number of independent citizens.
Many towns placed themselves voluntarily under the rule of princes who
in turn were trying to subjugate the nobility, and so protected the
towns and accorded all sorts of rights and privileges.

The Thirty Years' War, from 1618 to 1648, decimated the German
population, and reduced still further the possibility of marriage for
many. Forced out of trades, women had only the lowest, most menial forms
of trade labor as resort, and their position was to all appearance
nearly hopeless.

In spite of this, certain trades were practically woman's. Embroidery of
church vestments and hangings had been brought to the highest
perfection. Lace-making had been known from the most ancient times; and
Colbert, the famous financier and minister for Louis XIV., gave a
privilege to Madame Gilbert, of Alencon, to introduce into France the
manufacture of both Flemish and Venetia