s
found that the daily wage of women cotton-spinners has risen from sixty
centimes, in 1871, to one franc twenty-six centimes in 1891, this being
the equivalent of one lire twenty-six centissimi. The wage for weaving
has risen from eighty centimes, in 1871, to one franc twenty-six
centimes in 1891. Spoolers in 1871 received eighty-eight centimes as
against one franc thirty centimes in 1891. In hemp-spinning the wage has
fallen from ninety to eighty centimes, but has risen from ninety-eight
centimes to one franc thirty centimes for twisting; the wage in the
cases cited being a little more than a third that of men. In
paper-making experienced workers now receive one franc fifty-two
centimes as against sixty-six centimes in 1871; and in making of
stearine candles one franc as against seventy-eight centimes in 1871.
Running through the tables of every industry, the average is about the
same,--the wage for women, even when doing the same work, hardly more
than a third that for men, and the amount for either at bare subsistence
point.

In Russia the woman's wage is but a fifth that of men, with working
conditions, save at a few points where the work of Professor Janzhul
and his confreres has told, at the very worst,--the day being from
twelve to sixteen hours long even in the best-managed factories, while
in the village industries, which, owing to the peculiar conditions of
Russian life, make up the larger proportion of her industries, it is for
many workers almost unending, the merest respite being given for sleep.
As yet but few authentic figures as to the numbers employed are given,
though on the first investigation into domestic industries made a few
years since it was found that over 890,000 were engaged in them, and
also at the same time in agriculture. Manufacturing in Russia
concentrates about Moscow and St. Petersburg, which represent more than
two fifths of the whole production of the empire. The requirements of
nine tenths of the Russian people are met by domestic manufacture in the
villages, and home-weaving for the market employs over two hundred
thousand workers, other textiles, leather, etc., being dealt with in the
same way.

In the other northern countries of Europe,--Norway, Sweden, and
Denmark,--manufactures are at a minimum, fisheries and agriculture being
the chief industries. Women are employed in both; and in the few
factories there is a small proportion of women and children, working at
a wage much