l
may be imagined. Above the tumult the figure of the Khalifa rises
stern and solitary, the only object which may attract the interest of
a happier world. Yet even the Khalifa's methods were oppressively
monotonous. For although the nature or courage of the revolts might
differ with the occasion, the results were invariable; and the heads
of all his chief enemies, of many of his generals, of most of his
councillors, met in the capacious pit which yawned in Omdurman.

During the thirteen years of his reign Abdullah tried nearly every
device by which Oriental rulers have sought to fortify their perilous
sovereignty. He shrank from nothing. Self-preservation was the guiding
principle of his policy, his first object and his only excuse. Among
many wicked and ingenious expedients three main methods are remarkable.
First, he removed or rendered innocuous all real or potential
rivals. Secondly, he pursued what Sir Alfred Milner has called
'a well-considered policy of military concentration.' Thirdly, he
maintained among the desert and riverain people a balance of power on
the side of his own tribe. All these three methods merit some attention
or illustration.

The general massacre of all possible claimants usually follows the
accession of a usurper to an Oriental throne. The Khalifa was able to
avoid this extreme measure. Nevertheless he took precautions. Availing
himself of the grief and terror that had followed Mohammed Ahmed's
death, he had extorted the oath of allegiance from the two other
Khalifas and from the 'Ashraf' or relations of the Prophet. [The Madhi
had superseded the original Mohammed as 'the Prophet.' His relations
consequently became 'Ashraf.'] But these complaisant men soon repented
of their submission. Each Khalifa boasted his independence. Each marched
attended by a numerous retinue. Each asserted his right to beat his
own great copper drum. Both the unsuccessful Khalifas combined against
Abdullah. But while they had been busy with the beating of war-drums
and the preparation of pageants, that sagacious ruler had secured the
loyalty of the Baggara tribe, to a section of which he belonged, and
of a considerable force of black riflemen. At length matters reached
climax. Both parties prepared for war. Abdullah drew up his array
without the city, and challenged his rivals to the utmost proof. The
combined forces of the ousted Khalifas were the more numerous. But
the fierce Baggara waved their swords, and the