" was applied to covenants confirmed by swearing, which
were not kept, and probably had not been made in sincerity.[53] The
transactions with God in such cases are designated by what they
professed to be, and ought to have been: and with those who dishonoured
God in conducting them it became Him to deal accordingly.

From the foregoing statements regarding the oath, there may be deduced
the two following conclusions:--

First, That the civil or moral use of the oath, in the intercourse of
society depends wholly upon its spiritual character. The oath of an
atheist or unbeliever is not necessarily of any value. The individual
who cherishes no sense of responsibility to God for his actions will not
always, if at any time, scruple to swear falsely. When a witness is not
impressed with the fear of God, his oath is of no more value than his
simple affirmation: both may be true, but no security is afforded by his
character that both are not wrong. In civil and moral life, the
presumption that a witness is competent is based at least upon the
profession which he makes of a regard to Divine truth: and though many,
even while they tell the truth, swear without reverential feelings to
Him whose dread name they use, their evidence or engagement of whatever
kind is estimated as trust-worthy, only because it is supposed to be
accompanied with the oath religiously employed.

Second, That the oath is distinct from the vow. The vow is a solemn
promise to God. He is properly a party to the covenant entered into in
making it; and it may be made either on occasions of entering into
engagements with men, or in other circumstances. The oath is an appeal
to God; it may be made on occasions of covenanting, whether he be
properly the party or not, and is an invocation of him, that he may
witness and judge concerning a transaction entered into either with
himself, or with himself and also with others. The vow is essentially a
promise, but is made to God, who must be viewed necessarily as a witness
to a transaction with himself; and, consequently, though the name of God
may not be used in making it, as it is employed in the act of swearing
an oath, yet, when it is made, the exercise of swearing is implied; or,
every vow to God implies the giving of an oath, or the act of swearing
by his name. The swearing of an oath always brings under obligation to
God, and therefore always includes the making of a vow. When men
covenant with one another, and