and hoped to gain a sea-board
for his empire by driving back the Poles and Swedes from their Baltic
ports. He would then be able to trade with Europe and have intercourse
with countries that were previously unknown. But only war could
accomplish this high ambition, and he had, as yet, no real skill in
arms. An attempt on Azov, then in Turkish hands, had led to
ignominious defeat.

Peter returned home to find that the _Streltsy_ had broken out again.
His vengeance was terrible, for he had a barbarous strain and wielded
the axe and knout with his own hands. The rebellious soldiers were
deprived of the privileges that had long been theirs, and those who
were fortunate enough to escape a cruel death were {140} banished. In
future the army was to know the discipline that such soldiers as
Patrick Gordon, a Scotch officer, had learned in their campaigns in
foreign lands. This soldier did much good work in the organization and
control of Peter's army. Their dress was to be modelled on the western
uniforms that Peter had admired. He was ashamed of the cumbersome
skirts that Russians wore after the Asiatic style, and insisted that
they should be cut off, together with the beards that were almost
sacred in the eyes of priests.

Favourites of humble origin were useful to Peter in his innovations,
which were rigorously carried out. Menshikof, once a pastry-cook's
boy, aided the Tsar to crush any discontent that might break out, and
himself shaved many wrathful nobles who were afraid to resist. It was
Peter's whim to give such lavish presents to this minister that he
could live in splendid luxury and entertain the Tsar's own guests.
Peter himself preferred simplicity, and despised the magnificence of
fine palaces. He married a serving-maid named Catherine for his second
wife, and loved her homely household ways and the cheerful spirit with
which she rode out with him to camp. His first wife was shut up in a
convent because she had a sincere distrust of all the changes that
began with Peter's reign.

Charles XII of Sweden was the monarch who had chief reason to beware of
the impatient spirit of the Tsar, ever desirous of that "window open
upon Europe," which his father too had craved. The Swede was warlike
and fearless, for he was happy only in the field. He scorned Peter's
claims at first, and inflicted shameful defeat on him. The Tsar fled
from Narva in Livonia, and all Europe branded him as coward. By 1700,
pea