colleges, research
institutions, examining boards, and academies of science have been
directed to be more exacting in conferring scientific degrees and
titles. Newness and usefulness are requisite, but, at the same time,
degrees may now be awarded for other than dissertations; inventions and
textbooks of major importance may also earn a degree for their
authors.[24]

Within the prestige context, it is true that the United States must
labor under certain handicaps because of the nature of its democratic
system.

No effort is made in the American space program to hide the failures
which result from its highly complex character. Our burnups, misfires,
explosions, fizzles, and lost or wayward vehicles are well publicized.
Those of the Soviet Union rarely are. Even though most nations are well
aware that the Russians must be having their troubles, too, the
appearance of uniform success fostered by the U.S.S.R. inevitably
contributes to an image of scientific superiority. In addition, the
Soviets have developed a habit of striving for spectacular "firsts,"
most of which undoubtedly are undertaken almost as much for prestige
reasons as for scientific ones.

[Illustration: FIGURE 4.--Symbolic of the American effort in
space is this Thor-Able rocket, shown here launching the Tiros weather
satellite into a near-perfect orbit. This same vehicle, which launched
the record-breaking 23 million-mile communication probe--Pioneer V--has
contributed enormously to U.S. prestige abroad.]

Still, the United States has not done badly from the prestige angle. So
far as the world's scientific fraternity is concerned, it may even be
well in the lead.

In the first 30 or so months following the opening of the space age, as
signaled by the launching of Sputnik I in October 1957, the United
States put 21 satellites into orbit out of 42 attempts. Two out of five
deep-space probes were successful. The degree of success for all major
launchings ran better than 50 percent. The American effort has been
based on a broad scope of inquiry and includes long-range
communications, weather reporting, navigation and surveillance vehicles,
as well as information-gathering satellites.

During the same period the Soviets launched four Earth satellites, one
deep-space probe, one lunar-impact probe and one satellite into a much
elongated Earth orbit which circled and photographed the Moon. Most of
their vehicles have been substantially heavier than those l