In spite of these,
the inferior sentiment of revenge was, as we have seen, approved and
preached as a sacred duty. As a result of the universal _yin-yang_
dualistic doctrines, immorality was leniently regarded. In modern
times, at least, mercantile honour was high, "a merchant's word
is as good as his bond" being truer in China than in many other
countries. Intemperance was rare. Opium-smoking was much indulged in
until the use of the drug was forcibly suppressed (1906-16). Even now
much is smuggled into the country, or its growth overlooked by bribed
officials. Clan quarrels and fights were common, vendettas sometimes
continuing for generations. Suicide under depressing circumstances
was approved and honoured; it was frequently resorted to under the
sting of great injustice. There was a deep reverence for parents
and superiors. Disregard of the truth, when useful, was universal,
and unattended by a sense of shame, even on detection. Thieving was
common. The illegal exactions of rulers were burdensome. In times
of prosperity pride and satisfaction in material matters was not
concealed, and was often short-sighted. Politeness was practically
universal, though said to be often superficial; but gratitude was a
marked characteristic, and was heartfelt. Mutual conjugal affection
was strong. The love of gambling was universal.

But little has occurred in recent years to modify the above
characters. Nevertheless the inferior traits are certainly being
changed by education and by the formation of societies whose members
bind themselves against immorality, concubinage, gambling, drinking,
smoking, etc.

Religious Ideas

Chinese religion is inherently an attitude toward the spirits or gods
with the object of obtaining a benefit or averting a calamity. We
shall deal with it more fully in another chapter. Suffice it to say
here that it originated in ancestor-worship, and that the greater
part of it remains ancestor-worship to the present day. The State
religion, which was Confucianism, was ancestor-worship. Taoism,
originally a philosophy, became a worship of spirits--of the souls of
dead men supposed to have taken up their abode in animals, reptiles,
insects, trees, stones, etc.--borrowed the cloak of religion from
Buddhism, which eventually outshone it, and degenerated into a system
of exorcism and magic. Buddhism, a religion originating in India, in
which Buddha, once a man, is worshipped, in which no beings are known
wi