icipal
government was, in its real character, a business corporation, and the
business affairs of the town were uppermost after defense against
external forces was secured, hence it occurred that the wealthy
merchants and the nobles who dwelt within the town became the most
influential citizens in the management of municipal affairs.

There sprang up, as an essential outcome of these conditions, an
aristocracy within the city. In many instances this aristocracy was
reduced to an oligarchy, and the town was controlled by a few men; and
in extreme cases the control fell into the hands of a tyrant, who for a
time dominated the affairs of the town. Whatever the form of the
municipal government, the liberties of the people were little more than
a mere name, recognized as a right not to be denied. Having obtained
their independence of foreign powers, the towns fell victims to
internal tyranny, yet they were the means of preserving to the world
the principles of local self-government, even though they were not
permitted to enjoy to a great extent the privileges of exercising them.
It remained for more favorable circumstances to make this possible.

_The Italian Cities_.--The first cities to become prominent after the
perpetuation of the Roman system by the introduction of barbarian blood
were those of northern Italy. These cities were less influenced by the
barbarian invasion than others, on account of, first, their substantial
city organization; second, the comparatively small number of invaders
that surrounded them; and, third, the opportunity for trade presented
by the crusades, which they eagerly seized. Their power was increased
because, as stated above, the feudal nobility, unable to maintain their
position in the country, were forced to live in the cities. The
Italian cities were, therefore, less interfered with by barbarian and
feudal influences, and continued to {333} develop strength. The
opportunity for immense trade and commerce opened up through the
crusades made them wealthy. Another potent cause of the rapid
advancement of the Italian cities was their early contact with the
Greeks and the Saracens, for they imbibed the culture of these peoples,
which stimulated their own culture and learning. Also, the invasions
of the Saracens on the south and of the Hungarians on the north caused
them to strengthen their fortifications. They enclosed their towns
with walls, and thus made opportunity for the formatio