are handed down in song; just as we find in Beowulf, the story of
Hrothgar's ancestors was sung before his own companions-in-arms by his
gleemen to the accompaniment of some instrument after the mead cup had
gone round. The Roman historian attests the prevalence among the German
tribes of ancient songs, which he expressly mentions as their only kind
of memory or record,--thus showing that all their tales, whether
mythologic or heroic, were for better preservation cast into metrical
form. Some of these, enshrining the deeds of their heroes, were chanted
on going into battle, in order to arouse the warriors' courage. And as
far back as the light of history, or of literature, penetrates, not only
the Teutonic, but also the Celtic nations loved to have their actions
celebrated thus. To a Welsh king his household bard was as necessary as
his domestic chaplain, or his court physician, and in the ancient laws
his duties, his precedence, his perquisites, and even the songs he was
expected to sing, are minutely prescribed. The bards were organized into
a regular order, or college, with an official chief. They were not
merely singers or poets, but also tale-tellers; and from the Mabinogion
we gather that listening to songs and tales was one of the habitual, if
not daily pastimes, of a court.[9]

It is needless to follow through the Middle Ages the history of the
troubadour, the minstrel and the jongleur, who played so large part in
the social life of those times. Many of them were retainers of noblemen
and kings; but others roamed about from place to place, singing their
lays and reciting their stories (for they dealt in prose as well as
verse), very much in the manner of the Indian bards just mentioned.
Their stock-in-trade must have been partly traditional and partly of
their own composition. In this respect they were probably less
hide-bound than their Indian brethren are. For the latter, whether
retainers of the native grandees, as many of them are, or members of the
humbler class of wandering minstrels, are expected to repeat their lays
as they have received them. But, although in the main these professional
gentlemen adhere to the traditional words which they know by heart, the
temptation must be very strong to foist at suitable pauses into their
tales impromptu passages--best described in stage language as
"gag"--which they think will be acceptable to their audience. And
whether or not this be actually the case with the In