the backbone of the republican movement in Europe; the French republicans
proclaimed the independence of nations as one of their cardinal principles.
Thus the social idea and the national idea were originally intimately
connected. They were the twin children of Poland and the French Revolution,
and in their cradle it was hard to tell them apart, so strongly were the
features of each stamped with the likeness of Liberty.

For a time it seemed that the new ideas would carry all before them. Even
before France had herself abolished the monarchy, Belgium threw off the
Austrian rule and declared for a republic. And when in 1792 France found
herself at war with the Austrian and Prussian governments, and in the
following year with practically all the governments of Europe, her
victorious armies were everywhere greeted as saviours by the subject
peoples. But the old dynastic states proved to be of tougher material than
was expected. Moreover, it was not long before France found herself in
conflict with the national aspirations which she had called into existence.
The various republics which France set up all over Europe soon discovered
that they were nothing but tributary states of their "deliverer"; and when
Napoleon began his career of undisguised conquest, he unwittingly did even
more than the Revolution to strengthen the national idea in Europe, for the
nationalities had now become thoroughly hostile to France and fought in
alliance with their old dynasties to throw off the yoke of the hated
foreign tyrant.

This strange change in France from liberator to despot is worthy of some
attention. It is not good for a nation, any more than for an individual,
to be too successful. Moreover, the doctrine of liberty, whether in the
individualist or nationalist sense, if carried to extreme, is liable to
abuse. All to-day are aware that sheer individualism in the economic sphere
is an almost unmitigated evil; sheer individualism in the political sphere
and sheer nationalism are equally evil. France at the beginning of last
century was suffering from too much success, too much political liberty,
too much nationalism. Having overthrown the old _regime_ within the State
quickly and easily, she began to think she could do without the State
altogether: the result was anarchy, for which the only remedy is despotism.
Having, again, suddenly become conscious of her power and mission as a
nation, she began to send her armies across her frontier