potism aroused by witnessing the repressive
methods employed against the Poles. He proceeded to Germany, studied Hegel,
and soon got into touch with the leaders of the young German movement in
Berlin. Thence he went to Paris, where he met Proudhon and George Sand, and
also made the acquaintance of the chief Polish exiles. From Paris he
journeyed to Switzerland, where he resided for some time, taking an active
share in all socialistic movements. While in Switzerland he was ordered by
the Russian government to return to Russia, and on his refusal his property
was confiscated. In 1848, on his return to Paris, he published a violent
tirade against Russia, which caused his expulsion from France. The
revolutionary movement of 1848 gave him the opportunity of entering upon a
violent campaign of democratic agitation, and for his participation in the
Dresden insurrection of 1849 he was arrested and condemned to death. The
death sentence, however, was commuted to imprisonment for life, and he was
eventually handed over to the Russian authorities, by whom he was
imprisoned and finally sent to eastern Siberia in 1855. He received
permission to remove to the Amur region, whence he succeeded in escaping,
making his way through Japan and the United States to England in 1861. He
spent the rest of his life in exile in western Europe, principally in
Switzerland. In 1869 he founded the Social Democratic Alliance, which,
however, dissolved in the same year, and joined the International (_q.v._).
In 1870 he attempted a rising at Lyons on the principles afterwards
exemplified by the Paris Commune. At the Hague congress of the
International in 1872 he was outvoted and expelled by the Marx party. He
retired to Lugano in 1873 and died at Bern on the 13th of June 1876.

Nothing can be clearer or more frank and comprehensive in its
destructiveness than the revolutionary anarchism of Bakunin. He rejects all
the ideal systems in every name and shape, from the idea of God downwards;
and every form of external authority, whether emanating from the will of a
sovereign or from universal suffrage. "The liberty of man," he says in his
_Dieu et l'Etat_ (published posthumously in 1882) "consists solely in this,
that he obeys the laws of nature, because he has himself recognized them as
such, and not because they have been imposed upon him externally by any
foreign will whatsoever, human or divine, collective or individual." In
this way will the whole problem