f
papal infallibility in 1870. The "Kulturkampf" raged in Baden, as in the
rest of Germany; and here as elsewhere the government encouraged the
formation of Old Catholic communities. Not till 1880, after the fall of the
ministry of Jolly, was a reconciliation with Rome effected; in 1882 the
archbishopric of Freiburg was again filled up. The political tendency of
Baden, meanwhile, mirrored that of all Germany. In 1891 the National
Liberals had but a majority of one in the diet; from 1893 they could
maintain themselves only with the aid of the Conservatives; and in 1897 a
coalition of Ultramontanes, Socialists, Social-democrats and Radicals
(_Freisinnige_), won a majority for the opposition in the chamber.

Amid all these contests the wise and statesmanlike moderation of the
grand-duke Frederick won him universal esteem. By the treaty under which
Baden had become an integral part of the German empire, he had reserved
only the exclusive right to tax beer and spirits; the army, the
post-office, railways and the conduct of foreign relations were placed
under the effective control of Prussia. In his relations with the German
empire, too, Frederick proved himself rather a great German noble than a
sovereign prince actuated by particularist ambitions; and his position as
husband of the emperor William I.'s only daughter, Louise (whom he had
married in 1856), gave him a peculiar influence in the councils of Berlin.
When, on the 20th of September 1906, the grand-duke celebrated at once the
jubilee of his reign and his golden wedding, all Europe combined to do him
honour. King Edward VII. sent him, by the hands of the duke of Connaught,
the order of the Garter. But more significant, perhaps, was the tribute
paid by the _Temps_, the leading Parisian paper. "Nothing more clearly
demonstrates the sterile paradox of the Napoleonic work," it wrote, "than
the history of the grand-duchy. It was Napoleon, and he alone, who created
this whole state in 1803 to reward in the person of the little margrave of
Baden a relative of the emperor of Russia. It was he who after Austerlitz
aggrandized the margravate at the expense of Austria; transformed it into a
sovereign principality and raised it to a grand-duchy. It was he too who,
by the secularization on the one hand and by the dismemberment of
Wuerttemberg on the other, gave the grand-duke 500,000 new subjects. He
believed that the recognition of the prince and the artificial ethnical
formation