he imperial ukase of 1864, created _zemstvos_ or
district assemblies composed of representatives of the landed
proprietors or gentlemen; or rural communes or mirs, and of the towns.
These representatives were elected every three years. The assembly
appointed an executive committee which is in permanent session, but
the zemstvo assembles once a year. Its duties are strictly limited to
local affairs, such as keeping roads and bridges in repair; to watch
over education and sanitation, to report on the condition of the
harvest, and to guard against the occurrence of famine. Above the
district zemstvo is the goubernkoe zemstvo or provincial assembly,
whose members are elected from the district zemstvos. Its duties
embrace the estimate of the provincial budget, and a general
supervision over the districts.

Alexander was kindly disposed and meant to do well. He showed it by
removing the barriers erected by his father between Russia and western
Europe. Foreigners in Russia were granted civil rights, and Russians
were allowed to travel abroad. The universities were relieved of
restraints and Jews who had learned a trade could settle where they
pleased. All these reforms were so many promises of a new era for
Russia.

Alexander soon found out that his concessions only served to create
demands for more. The trouble began in Poland, where the news of
Nicholas' death was received with relief, if not with joy. Great hopes
were entertained from the new czar; besides, the Europe of 1855 (p. 227)
was very different from that of 1825: monarchs had learned the lesson
that the people possessed inalienable rights. Italy had shaken off the
encumbrance of a number of princelings,--and was the better for it;
Austria had been compelled to grant self-government to its Hungarian
subjects; why, then, should Poland despair of recovering its
independence?

It was Poland's greatest misfortune that her best sons were always
divided in opinion; many of them, moreover, thought that Poland's
cause should command the sacrifices of every people. They forgot that
their country owed its downfall to itself and that, whereas people
might express their sympathy, it cannot be expected that they shall
neglect their own business for the sake of other people. Some of the
leaders expected that the czar would grant them self-government, and
Alexander might have done so after some time; but others demanded not
only independence but that Russia should restore t