ft, 2 Raekke, 5 Bind), has shown that _by_ is
not peculiar to Denmark and rare in Norway. It occurs 600-700 times
in Denmark and Skane, and 450 times in Norway. Finally, _by_ is
often found in Norse settlements in Scotland and elsewhere--in
Iceland, Shetland, Orkney, Man, and in the Western Isles. In fact,
_by_ seems to be the more common form outside of Iceland. All we can
say then is that _by_ is more Danish than Norse, but may also be
Norse. Where names in _by_ are numerous it indicates that the
settlements are rather Danish, but they may also be Norse. We have,
then, the following results: Predominantly Danish settlements:
Essex, Bedford, Buckingham, Suffolk, Norfolk, Northampton,
Leicester, Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham, Derby, East Riding. Mixed
Norse and Danish settlements: North Riding, West Riding, Durham,
part of Cheshire, and Southern Lancashire. Norse settlements:
Cumberland, Westmoreland, North Lancashire, part of Cheshire, and
parts of Northumberland. The number of Scandinavian place-names in
Northumberland is not large, only 22 in Worsaae's list. North of the
Cheviot Hills the names are again predominantly Norse.

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD NORTHERN, OR OLD SCANDINAVIAN.
EARLY DIALECTAL DIFFERENTIATION.

On the characteristics of primitive Northern and the changes that
had taken place in the language before the Viking period, see
Noreen, P.G.(2)I, 521-526. On pp. 523-526 are summarized the
characteristics of General Northern. Until 800 the Northern tongue
was unitary throughout the Scandinavian North. In the Viking age
dialectal differentiations began to appear, especially in O. Dan.
These are as follows (from Noreen):

About 800, older _hr_ > _r_ in Denmark.
Soon after 800, older diphthongs became simplified in Denmark,
e.g.,

_au_ > _u_ cp. O. Ic. _