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philosophical developments for which their societies had been responsible.
Decades of experimentation had placed in their hands material means that
were still beyond the appreciation of the rest of humanity. Throughout
both Europe and America vast industries had risen, dedicated to
metallurgy, to the manufacturing of chemical products of every kind, to
textiles, to construction and to the production of instruments that
enhanced every aspect of life. A continuous process of discovery, design
and improvement was making accessible power of unimaginable
magnitude--with, alas, ecological consequences equally unimagined at the
time--especially through the use of cheap fuel and electricity. The "era of
the railroad" was far advanced and steamships coursed the seaways of the
world. With the proliferation of telegraph and telephone communication,
Western society anticipated the moment when it would be freed of the
limiting effects that geographical distances had imposed on humankind
since the dawn of history.

Changes taking place at the deeper level of scientific thought were even
more far-reaching in their implications. The nineteenth century had still
been held in the grip of the Newtonian view of the world as a vast
clockwork system, but by the end of the century the intellectual strides
necessary to challenge that view had already been taken. New ideas were
emerging that would lead to the formulation of quantum mechanics; and
before long the revolutionizing effect of the theory of relativity would
call into question beliefs about the phenomenal world that had been
accepted as common sense for centuries. Such breakthroughs were
encouraged--and their influence greatly amplified--by the fact that science
had already changed from an activity of isolated thinkers to the
systematically pursued concern of a large and influential international
community enjoying the amenities of universities, laboratories and
symposia for the exchange of experimental discoveries.

Nor was the strength of Western societies limited to scientific and
technological advances. As the twentieth century opened, Western
civilization was reaping the fruits of a philosophical culture that was
rapidly liberating the energies of its populations, and whose influence
would soon produce a revolutionary impact throughout the entire world. It
was a culture which nurtured constitutional government, prized the rule of
law and respect for the rights of all of socie