most were attacked during winter by scurvy; nine died,
among them Zivolka himself. During spring, excursions for the
purpose of surveying the neighbouring coasts had to be broken off
because they had not brought snow-glasses with them--a thing that
Pachtussov did not neglect, being accustomed besides to blacken the
under eyelid as a protection against the blinding brightness of the
snow. By the expedition, however, considerable stretches of the west
coast of Novaya Zemlya were surveyed, and valuable contributions to
a knowledge of the climatic conditions of this region obtained.
These turned out to be less severe than had been expected. During
winter the thermometer never sank below -33 deg.; in July there
were only two nights of frost, and on two occasions + 18 deg. was
observed in the shade; in August there were only three hours of
frost. All this depends of course on the neighbourhood of warm
marine currents and of a sea open all the year round at a short
distance from the coast.

With this unfortunate and to all appearance ill-arranged expedition
the Russian Novaya Zemlya voyages ceased for a long time. For before
the beginning of the Norwegian hunting we have only two other
Russian voyages to notice in our sketch of the history of the North
East passage.

[Illustration: AUGUST KARLOVITZ ZIVOLKA. Born in 1810 at Warsaw, died
in 1839 on Novaya Zemlya. (After a pen-and-ink drawing communicated by
Herr Paul Daschkoff.) ]

The first of these owed its origin to the desire of the captain of a
Russian man-of-war, PAUL VON KRUSENSTERN, to undertake a voyage in
the Polar Sea in a schooner, the _Yermak_, which belonged to him and
which was for the time lying at the Petchora, in order to survey the
coasts lying to the eastward. He intended himself to undertake the
command, and to take with him as second in command his son PAUL VON
KRUSENSTERN. lieutenant in the Russian marine. The latter was sent
before to equip the _Yermak_, which he did with wonderful judgment
and skill, in the best way possible, in a region where at that time
nearly every requisite for the equipment of a vessel was wanting.
The elder Krusenstern was unable to reach the place of sailing in
time, on which account the command was given to the son.

[Illustration: PAUL VON KRUSENSTERN, JUNIOR. Born at Revel in 1834;
died at Dorpat in 1871. ]

He left the mouth of the Petchora on the 10th Sept/29th Aug, 1860. Three
days after he reached the Kara port, wh