e deserts
and unequalled as horsemen, no longer formed the strength of her army.

While Gallienus and Claudius governed the Roman empire, Zenobia was
allowed to pursue her conquests, rule her dominions, and enjoy her
triumphs almost without opposition; but at length the fierce and active
Aurelian was raised to the purple, and he was indignant that a woman
should thus brave with impunity the offended majesty of Rome. Having
subdued all his competitors in the West, he turned his arms against the
Queen of the East. Zenobia, undismayed by the terrors of the Roman name,
levied troops, placed herself at their head, and gave the second command
to Zabdas, a brave, and hitherto successful, general. The first great
battle took place near Antioch; Zenobia was totally defeated after an
obstinate conflict; but, not disheartened by this reverse, she retired
upon Emessa, rallied her armies, and once more defied the Roman emperor.
Being again defeated with great loss, and her army nearly dispersed, the
high-spirited queen withdrew to Palmyra, collected her friends around
her, strengthened her fortifications, and declared her resolution to
defend her capital and her freedom to the last moment of her existence.

Zenobia was conscious of the great difficulties which would attend the
siege of a great city, well stored with provisions and naturally
defended by surrounding deserts; these deserts were infested by clouds
of Arabs, who, appearing and disappearing with the swiftness and
suddenness of a whirlwind, continually harassed her enemies. Thus
defended without, and supported by a strong garrison within, Zenobia
braved her antagonist from the towers of Palmyra as boldly as she had
defied him in the field of battle. The expectation of succors from the
East added to her courage, and determined her to persevere to the last.
"Those," said Aurelian in one of his letters, "who speak with contempt
of the war I am waging against a woman, are ignorant both of the
character and power of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her
warlike preparations of stones, of arrows, and of every species of
missile weapons and military engines."

Aurelian, in fact, became doubtful of the event of the siege, and he
offered the queen the most honorable terms of capitulation if she would
surrender to his arms; but Zenobia, who was aware that famine raged in
the Roman camp, and daily looked for the expected relief, rejected his
proposals in a famous Greek epistle