and, at the same time, of his own
spiritual supremacy in England. All chance of a coalition of Henry with
the Lutherans was now out of the question ("Squire Harry means to be God,
and to do as pleases himself," said Luther at the time); and the Emperor,
freed from that danger, and faced with the greater peril of a coalition of
the French and Turks, industriously endeavoured to come to some _modus
vivendi_ with his German electors. The rift between Charles and Francis
was daily widening; and Henry himself was aiding the process to his full
ability; for he knew that whilst they were disunited he was safe. But for
the first time in his reign, except when he defied the Pope, he adopted a
policy--probably his own and not that of his ministers--calculated to
offend both the Catholic powers, whilst he was alienated from the
reforming element on the Continent.

By an Act of Parliament the ancient penal laws against foreign denizens
were re-enacted, and all foreigners but established merchants were to be
expelled the country; whilst alien merchants resident were to pay double
taxation. The taxation of Englishmen, enormous under Cromwell, was now
recklessly increased, with the set purpose of keeping the lieges poor,
just as the atrocious religious executions were mainly to keep them
submissive, and incapable of questioning the despot's will. But, though
Englishmen might be stricken dumb by persecution, the expulsion or
oppression of foreigners led to much acrimony and reprisals on the part
both of the Emperor and Francis. An entirely gratuitous policy of
irritation towards France on the frontier of Calais and elsewhere was also
adopted, apparently to impress the Emperor, and for the satisfaction of
Henry's arrogance, when he thought it might be safe to exercise it. The
general drift of English policy at the time was undoubtedly to draw closer
to the Emperor, not entirely to the satisfaction of the Duke of Norfolk,
who was usually pro-French; but even here the oppressive Act against
foreigners by which Henry hoped to show Charles that his friendship was
worth buying made cordiality in the interim extremely difficult. When
Chapuys in the Emperor's name remonstrated with the Council about the new
decree forbidding the export of goods from England except in English
bottoms, the English ministers rudely said that the King could pass what
laws he liked in his own country, just as the Emperor could in his.
Charles and his sister, the Reg