s deposed for contumacy and excommunicated.

"In 869 was another council at Constantinople; in this Photius, in turn,
was deposed and excommunicated and St. Ignatius restored.

"In 879 another council was held in Constantinople, in which Photius,
already restored, was acknowledged as true patriarch by the legates of
Pope John VIII., who declares all those to be Judases who say that the
Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son.

"In 1122-3 a council was held at Rome, in the church of St. John of
Lateran, by Pope Calixtus II. This was the first general council
assembled by the popes. The emperors of the west had now scarcely any
authority, and the emperors of the east, pressed by the Mahometans and
by the crusaders, held none but little wretched councils. In this
council the bishops complained heavily of the monks. 'They possess,'
said they, 'the churches, the lands, the castles, the tithes, the
offerings of the living and the dead; they have only to take from us the
ring and the crosier.' _The monks remained in possession._"

"In 1139 was another council of Lateran, by Pope Innocent II. It is said
a thousand bishops were present. Here the ecclesiastical tithes are
declared to be of _divine right_, and all laymen possessing any of them
are excommunicated.

"In 1215 was the last general council of Lateran, by Pope Innocent III.
Four hundred and twelve bishops and eight hundred abbots were here. This
was in the time of the Crusades, and the popes have established a Latin
patriarch at Jerusalem and one at Constantinople. These patriarchs
attend this council. This council declares, among other things, that 'no
one can be saved out of the Catholic church.' The word
transubstantiation was not known until after this council. It forbade
the establishment of new religious orders; but, since that time, no less
than eighty have been instituted. It was in this council that Raimond,
Count of Toulouse, was stripped of all his lands.

"In 1245 a council assembled at the city of Lyons. Innocent IV. brings
thither the Emperor of Constantinople, John Puleologus, and makes him
sit beside him. He deposes the Emperor Frederick as a felon, and gives
the cardinals a red but, as a sign of hostility to Frederick, and the
source of thirty years of civil war.

"In 1274 another council is held at the city of Lyons. Five hundred
bishops are present, seventy great and a thousand lesser abbots. The
Greek emperor, Michael Paleologus, that