their "Little Father," had intended for their happiness. But
considering the intricate difficulties attending such a tremendous
change in the social conditions, the emancipation was easily effected
and the Russian peasants, by the survival of their old Patriarchal
institutions, were at once provided with a complete system of local
self-government in which the ancient Slavonic principle was unchanged.
At the head of the commune or _mir_ was the elder, a group of communes
formed a _Volost_, and the head of the _Volost_ was responsible for the
peace and order of the community. To this was later added the
_Zemstvo_ a representative assembly of peasants, for the regulation of
local matters.

Such a new reign of clemency awakened hope in Poland that it too might
share these benefits. First it was a Constitution such as had been
given to Hungary for which they prayed. Then, as Italy was
emancipating herself, they grew bolder, and, incited by societies of
Polish exiles, all over Europe, demanded more: that they be given
independence. Again the hope of a Polo-Lithuanian alliance, and a
recovery of the lost Polish provinces in the Ukraine, and the
reestablishment of an independent kingdom of Poland, dared to assert
itself, and to invite a more complete destruction.

The liberal Russians might have sympathized with the first moderate
demand, but when by the last there was an attempt made upon the
integrity of Russia, there was but one voice in the empire. So cruel
and so vindictive was the punishment of the Poles, by Liberals and
Conservatives alike, that Europe at last in 1863 protested. The Polish
language and even alphabet were prohibited. Every noble in the land
had been involved in this last conspiracy. They were ordered to sell
their lands, and all Poles were forbidden to be its purchasers.
Nothing of Poland was left which could ever rise again.

CHAPTER XXIV

TURCO-RUSSIAN WAR--TREATY OF BERLIN

Liberalism had received a check. In this outburst of severity, used to
repress the free instincts of a once great nation, the temper of the
Russian people had undergone a change. The warmth and ardor were
chilled. The Emperor's grasp tightened. Some even thought that
Finland ought to be Russianized precisely as Poland had been; but
convinced of its loyalty, the Grand Principality was spared, and the
privileges so graciously bestowed by Alexander the First were confirmed.

While the political reforms had be