plements disappeared very
slowly. Not only in the Hildebrand Song, but also at Hastings in 1066,
stone axes were still used in fighting. But progress was now
irresistible, less interrupted and more rapid. The town, inclosing
houses of stone or tiles within its turreted and crested stone walls,
became the central seat of the tribe or federation of tribes. It showed
an astounding progress of architecture, but also an increase of danger
and of the demand for protection. Wealth increased rapidly, but it was
the wealth of private individuals. Weaving, metal work and other more
and more differentiating industries developed an increasing variety and
display of art in production. Agriculture furnished not alone grain,
peas, beans and fruit, but also oil and wine, the preparation of which
had now been learned. Such a diversity of action could not be displayed
by any single individual. The second great division of labor took place:
handicrafts separated from agriculture. The growing intensity of
production and the increased productivity enhanced the value of human
labor power. Slavery, which had been a rising and sporadic factor in the
preceding stage, now became an essential part of the social system. The
slaves ceased to be simple assistants. They were now driven in scores to
the work in the fields and shops. The division of production into two
great branches, agriculture and handicrafts, gave rise to production for
exchange, the production of commodities. Trade arose at the same time,
not only in the interior and on the tribal boundaries, but also in the
form of maritime exchange. All this was as yet in a very undeveloped
state. The precious metals gained preference as a universal money
commodity, but still uncoined and exchanged merely by dead weight.

The distinction between rich and poor was added to that between free men
and slaves. This and the new division of labor constitute a new division
of society into classes. The differences in the amount of property
belonging to the several family heads broke up the old communistic
households one by one, wherever they might have been preserved thus far.
This made an end to the collective cultivation of the soil for the
account of the community. The cultivated land was assigned for use to
the several families, first for a limited time, later for once and all.
The transition to full private property was accomplished gradually and
simultaneously with the transition from the pairing fa