white spots, and the crayon the
black ones. To produce this make the lines in the shadows and
half-shadows, but not in the light places, in the manner shown in the
illustration on the following page; instead of crossing them to form
diamonds, using short lines and varying their direction and
intersection with reference to the ultimate effect; then rub them with
the end of the finger. In finishing, gradually divide up all the small
light parts with the pencil and the dark with the eraser: if it is
necessary at any time to rub the crayon, use the end of the finger
instead of the cotton. Be careful not to get too much crayon on the
paper, that is, you must not "force up" or be compelled to make the
shadows too dark by the use of the crayon; they should be made as dark
as necessary with the stump before finishing. Should you find in
finishing that they are not dark enough, use the stump to make them
darker, as the pencil is only intended to give the stipple effect, and
should be used in a very light and delicate way. Continue the process
of finishing according to the directions hereafter given for bromide
enlargements. The foregoing illustration is the first or ground work
for the stipple effect produced by the aid of the fingers. To obtain
this effect without rubbing with the fingers, make small black dots,
instead of the lines shown above, until the desired effect is produced.
The latter method results in a coarser stipple effect, but it requires
a much longer time and is more difficult than the former.

BACKGROUNDS--GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Always commence the portrait by putting in the background. Among the
four different methods which I have given, the student can make his own
selection. For myself, I prefer the last two mentioned.

There can be no definite rule given for the lights and shadows in the
backgrounds, as every portrait will need a characteristic background
adapted to the subject. There should always be a nice disposition of
light and shade, the light coming against the dark side of the face and
the dark against the light side, and generally a cast shadow. What this
is may be learned by setting a cast (or any other object) near the
wall, letting the light strike it at an angle of 90 degrees, and
noticing the size and position of the shadow thrown on the wall. The
cast shadow in your background must not be too near the head, as
simplicity should be one of the principles of the background, and this
ca