re, but failed to make any permanent conquests to the
north of that river. Another army, under John's illegitimate brother,
the Earl of Salisbury, joined the Emperor Otto in an attack on Philip
from the north. The united force of Germans and English was, however,
routed by Philip at Bouvines, in Flanders. "Since I have been
reconciled to God," cried John, when he heard the news, "and submitted
to the Roman Church, nothing has gone well with me." He made a truce
with Philip, and temporarily renounced all claims to the lands to the
north of the Loire.

15. =The Struggle between John and the Barons. 1214--1215.= When John
returned he called upon all his vassals who had remained at home to
pay an exorbitant scutage. In reply they met at Bury St. Edmunds. The
charter of Henry I., which had been produced at St. Paul's the year
before, was again read, and all present swore to force John to accept
it as the rule of his own government. John asked for delay, and
attempted to divide his antagonists by offering to the clergy the
right of free election to bishoprics and abbacies. Then he turned
against the barons. Early in =1215= he brought over a large force of
foreign mercenaries, and persuaded the Pope to threaten the barons
with excommunication. His attempt was defeated by the constancy of
Stephen Langton. The demands of the barons were placed in writing by
the archbishop, and, on John's refusal to accept them, an army was
formed to force them on the king. The army of God and the Holy Church,
as it was called, grew rapidly. London admitted it within its walls,
and the accession of London to the cause of the barons was a sign that
the traders of England were of one mind with the barons and the
clergy. John found that their force was superior to his own, and at
Runnimede on June 15, =1215=, confirmed with his hand and seal the
articles of the barons, with the full intention of breaking his
engagement as soon as he should be strong enough to do so.

[Illustration: Effigy of a knight in the Temple Church, London,
showing armour worn between 1190 and 1225.]

16. =Magna Carta. 1215.=--_Magna Carta_, or the Great Charter, as the
articles were called after John confirmed them, was won by a
combination between all classes of freemen, and it gave rights to them
all.

(_a_) _Its Concessions._--The Church was to be free, its privileges
were to be respected, and its right to free elections which John had
granted earlier in the year was