in the fact that, from the far past down even to
the present, social needs have subordinated individual needs, and that
the chief social need has been the control of individuals. It is not,
as we commonly suppose, that there are no governments but those of
monarchs, and parliaments, and constituted authorities. These
acknowledged governments are supplemented by other unacknowledged
ones, that grow up in all circles, in which every man or woman strives
to be king or queen or lesser dignitary. To get above some and be
reverenced by them, and to propitiate those who are above us, is the
universal struggle in which the chief energies of life are expended.
By the accumulation of wealth, by style of living, by beauty of dress,
by display of knowledge or intellect, each tries to subjugate others,
and so aids in weaving that ramified network of restraints by which
society is kept in order. It is not the savage chief only who, in
formidable war paint, with scalps at his belt, aims to strike awe into
his inferiors; it is not only the belle who, by elaborate toilet,
polished manners, and numerous accomplishments, strives to "make
conquests"; but the scholar, the historian, the philosopher, use their
acquirements to the same end. We are none of us content with quietly
unfolding our own individualities to the full in all directions, but
have a restless craving to impress our individualities upon others,
and in some way subordinate them. And this it is which determines the
character of our education. Not what knowledge is of most real worth
is the consideration, but what will bring most applause, honor,
respect--what will most conduce to social position and influence--what
will be most imposing. As throughout life not what we are, but what we
shall be thought, is the question; so in education the question is
not the intrinsic value of knowledge so much as its extrinsic effects
on others. And this being our dominant idea, direct utility is
scarcely more regarded than by the barbarian when filing his teeth and
staining his nails.

IV

REMINISCENCES OF HIS BOYHOOD[50]

Places where I gathered flowers and gazed with interest at the catkins
of the hazel, have now become places covered with ironworks, where
steam hammers make their perpetual thuds, and through which
railway-sidings everywhere ramify. Quiet lanes in which, during early
boyhood, I went with a companion trying to catch minnows with a
hand-net in a clear little st