ey were far off,
intangible; mountains were grand and mighty, but motionless; stones lay
in his path, but did not approach him; rivers ran, but in an unchanging
way, rarely displaying emotion; plants grew, and furnished food, but
showed little sign of intelligence. Animals, on the other hand, dwelt
with him in his home, met him at every turn, and did things that seemed
to him to exhibit qualities identical with his own, not only physical
but also mental--they showed swiftness, courage, ferocity, and also
skill and cunning. In certain regards they appeared to be his superiors,
and thus became standards of power and objects of reverence.

+242+. At a very early period the belief in social relations between men
and animals appears. The latter were supposed to have souls, to continue
their existence after death, sometimes to come to life on earth after
death. Their social life was supposed to be similar to that of men;[440]
in Samoa the various species form social units,[441] the Ainu see tattoo
marks on frogs and sparrows,[442] the Arabs recognize a clan
organization in beasts.[443]

+243+. From identity of nature comes the possibility of transformation
and transmigration.[444] An Australian of the Kangaroo clan explained
that he might be called either kangaroo or man--it was all the same,
man-kangaroo or kangaroo-man, and the Australian legends constantly
assume change from human to animal and from animal to human.[445] The
same belief appears in Africa and North America, and may be assumed to
be universal among savages. It survives in the Greek transformation
stories and in the werwolf and swan maiden of the European popular
creed. It is the basis of a part of the theory of the transmigration of
souls.[446]

+244+. The relations of early man with animals are partly friendly,
partly hostile. A friendly attitude is induced by admiration of their
powers and desire for their aid. Such an attitude is presupposed in the
myths of intermarriage between beasts and men. It is perhaps visible
also in the custom of giving or assuming names of animals as personal
names of men, though this custom may arise from the opinion that animals
are the best expressions of certain qualities, or from some conception
underlying totemistic organization; the general history of savage proper
names has not yet been written. Beast tales, likewise, bear witness to
man's opinion of the cleverness or folly of his nonhuman brethren, and
perhaps origina