were
ruined by the protracted struggle, and the new nobles created by the
King were pledged to uphold the interests of the Crown. Furthemore,
numerous towns absorbed in their own local affairs ceased to elect
members to the Commons. Thus, with a House of Lords on the side of
royal authority, and with a House of Commons diminished in numbers and
in influence, the decline of the independent attitude of Parliament
was inevitable.

The result of these changes was very marked. From the reign of
Henry VI to that of Elizabeth, a period of nearly a hundred and forty
years, "the voice of Parliament was rarely heard." The Tudors
practically set up a new or "personal monarchy," in which their will
rose above both Parliament and the constitution;[3] and Henry VII,
instead of asking the Commons for money, extorted it by fines
enforcedby his Court of Star Chamber, or compelled his wealthy
subjects to grant it to him in "benevolences" (S330)--those "loving
contributions," as the King called them, "lovingly advanced"!

[3] Theoretically Henry VII's power was restrained by certain checks
(see S328, note 1), and even Henry VIII generally ruled according to
the letter of the law, however much he may have violated its spirit.
It is noticable, too, that it was under Henry VIII (1541) that
Parliament first formally claimed freedom of speech as one of its
"undoubted privieges."

During this period England laid claim to a new continent, and
Henry VIII, repudiating the authority of the Pope, declared himself
the "supreme head" (1535) of the English Catholic Church. In the next
reign (Edward VI) the Catholic worship, which had existed in England
for nearly a thousand years, was abolished (1540), and the Protestant
faith became henceforth--except during Mary's short reign--the
established religion of the kingdom. It was enforced by two Acts of
Uniformity (1549, 1552). One effect of the overthrow of Catholicism
was to change the character of the House of Lords, by reducing the
number of spiritual lords from a majority to a minority, as they have
ever since remained (S406, note 2).

At the beginning of Elizabeth's reign the Second Act of Supremacy
(1559) shut out all Catholics from the House of Commons (S382),
Protestantism was fully and finally established as the state
religion,[1] embodied in the creed known as the Thirty-Nine Articles
(1563); and by the Third Act of Uniformity (1559) very severe measures
were taken against all--wheth