f a settlement based
on the strongest arguments, such as drove them into their
absurdities, they considered it sufficient to say: "I admit it,
for it follows from my own conclusion," and the next step is: "I
deny it. Prove it. I will defend it appropriately." For he who
"defends appropriately" (in their own words), no matter by what
incongruous admissions and concessions, is held to be a learned
man and best adapted to disputation, that is, to the apex of all
knowledge.

(c) _The Examination_

The examination, as an exercise leading to a degree, is one phase of
modern educational practice which comes from mediaeval universities. The
system of examinations grew up slowly. Generalization is difficult owing
to the differences in practice in various universities, but broadly
speaking the student who took a Master's or Doctor's degree in any
Faculty passed through the three stages of Bachelor, Licentiate, and
Doctor, and at each stage underwent some form of examination. The
examination for the License (to teach anywhere) seems to have been the
most formidable of the three; that for the Doctorate being mainly
ceremonial. In general, the examination tested the candidate's knowledge
of the books prescribed, and his power of public debate.

The statutes of Bourges (c. 1468-1480) thus describe the requirements
and the manner of procedure of examinations for the License in Arts:

[In preparation for the A.B. degree, which preceded the License, the
candidate had heard lectures on (1) The Isagoge (Introduction) of
Porphyry to the Categories of Aristotle, (2) the following works of
Aristotle: (a) Categories; (b) Peri Hermeneias (On Interpretation), the
first (?) two books and a part of the fourth; (c) Topics, first book;
(d) Physics, first three books.]

Likewise we have decreed that before any one comes to the grade
of License he must have heard four other books of Physics, three
books "On the Heavens," two of "On Generation," the first three
of "On Meteors," three "On the Soul," "On the Memory," "On the
Length and Brevity of Life," with the first six books of
"Metaphysics" and the first six on "Ethics" with a part of
Euclid, and with the book "On the Sphere" [by John Sacrobosco].

Likewise we have decreed that candidates must respond twice
openly and in public, and there may be five at most in one day
and in the same debate; yet four